Document Type

Article

Abstract

Introduction: Although heterogeneity of treatment effects (HTEs) is commonly observed in clinical trials, it has received little attention in studies on transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS).

Objectives: This study identified the presence of HTE in tDCS treatment among participants with symptomatic knee osteoarthritis (KOA) and explored participant characteristics associated with this heterogeneity.

Methods: This secondary analysis of a randomized clinical trial included 120 participants with symptomatic KOA who received 15 daily sessions of home-based 2-mA active or sham tDCS over 3 weeks. We used a multitrajectory analysis to identify distinct subgroups based on the longitudinal trajectories of KOA pain and symptoms from baseline to 3 months postintervention, capturing differential responses to tDCS. We then performed bivariate analyses to examine associations between trajectory groups and baseline demographic, clinical, and quantitative sensory testing characteristics.

Results: In the active tDCS group, 2 distinct trajectories emerged: “low initial symptoms with significant improvement” (high responders; n 5 28) and “high initial symptoms with minimal improvement” (low responders; n 5 32). Compared to high responders, low responders had a higher body mass index, lower educational attainment, and greater pain catastrophizing (all P , 0.05). Low responders also exhibited lower pressure pain thresholds at both the medial knee and trapezius, higher punctate mechanical pain at both the patella and hand, lower conditioned pain modulation, and higher cold pain intensity at baseline (all P , 0.05). No notable HTE was observed in the sham tDCS group.

Conclusion: Participants exhibited varying responses to active tDCS. The characteristics associated with HTE may inform the development of personalized stimulation protocols.

Digital Object Identifier (DOI)

https://doi.org/10.1097/pr9.0000000000001411

Rights

© 2026 The Author(s). Published by Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. on behalf of The International Association for the Study of Pain. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial License 4.0 (CCBY-NC), where it is permissible to download, share, remix, transform, and buildup the work provided it is properly cited. The work cannot be used commercially without permission from the journal.

APA Citation

Lee, C., Sun, X., Park, J., Chen, C. X., Pellegrini, C., Chen, N., Garcia, D. O., Kim, H., Kwoh, C. K., & Ahn, H. (2026). Heterogeneity of treatment effects in transcranial direct current stimulation for knee osteoarthritis pain and symptoms. PAIN Reports, 11(2). https://doi.org/10.1097/pr9.0000000000001411

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